Throughout the Middle Ages, mercenaries—soldiers who fought for payment rather than feudal obligation—played a pivotal and often controversial role in shaping European warfare. While paid soldiers had existed since antiquity, the 14th and 15th centuries witnessed the rise of large, organized mercenary companies whose influence extended across political, military, and even economic spheres. These companies offered trained, battle-hardened warriors to rulers and city-states, but they also introduced instability, shifting loyalties, and, at times, outright devastation.

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Origins and Growth of Mercenary Companies

Although the article commonly cited the 14th century as their “beginning,” mercenaries had long been present in Europe. Earlier examples include:

• Brabançons in the 12th century
• Routiers active during the 13th century
• Norman adventurers serving foreign rulers in the 11th century

What did emerge in the 14th century was the large-scale, organized mercenary company, often composed of unemployed soldiers left adrift during lulls in conflicts such as the Hundred Years’ War. These companies:

• Operated as semi-professional military corporations
• Negotiated contracts (condotte in Italy)
• Offered specialized infantry, cavalry, or missile troops
• Served monarchs, nobles, city-republics, and sometimes the Church

These soldiers were typically paid:

• Monthly or seasonal wages
• Shares of plunder
• Bonuses for successful campaigns

Their services were contractual yet often temporary, lasting only as long as funding allowed.

📜 Click to Reveal a Quick Summary of Medieval Mercenary Companies

Mercenary companies were professional fighting forces that rose to prominence in the 14th and 15th centuries, especially in regions like Italy, France, and the Byzantine world. While soldiers-for-hire existed earlier, these **large organized companies** reshaped medieval warfare.

• The White Company – Elite English-led mercenaries under Sir John Hawkwood, famed for discipline and success in Italy.
• Companies of St. George – Italian-led forces such as the brigade of Alberico da Barbiano, promoting early professionalized warfare.
• The Catalan Company – Fierce Almogavars who served Byzantium, later carving out territories in Greece.
• Free Companies – Loosely organized bands active during the Hundred Years’ War, often resorting to pillage during peacetime.
• Swiss Mercenaries – Highly sought-after pikemen known for discipline and decisive battlefield shock tactics.

These companies provided rulers with professional, flexible armies but also introduced significant instability, shifting allegiances, and widespread destruction when unpaid or uncontrolled. Their influence marked the transition from feudal levies to **early state-based military systems**.

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Major Mercenary Companies of the Medieval and Renaissance World

Below are historically grounded profiles of the most influential mercenary groups of the era.

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1. The White Company

One of the most famous and successful mercenary companies of the 14th century, the White Company formed around 1360 and became renowned throughout Italy. Key facts include:

• Composed largely of English and Anglo-Gascon veterans of the Hundred Years’ War
• Commanded by the legendary Sir John Hawkwood, celebrated for innovation and discipline
• Fought for multiple Italian powers, including Florence, Pisa, and the Papal States
• Distinguished by strict discipline, longbow use, and strategic mobility

Hawkwood’s talents allowed the White Company to become:

• A decisive political force in Italy
• A model of professionalized warfare years before standing armies became common
• A symbol of both the effectiveness and dangers of hired military power

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2. Companies of St. George (Compagnia di San Giorgio)

Several Italian companies used this name, the earliest founded in the 14th century. The most influential was created by Alberico da Barbiano in 1377. Important distinctions:

• Not originally founded by Francesco Sforza, though he later commanded companies of similar structure
• Primarily composed of Italian mercenaries, in contrast to earlier bands dominated by foreigners
• Emphasized loyalty to employers—Barbiano famously ordered his men not to pillage Italian civilians

These companies marked a shift toward Italian-led, semi-professional armies, shaping the future of Renaissance warfare.

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3. The Catalan Company

The Catalan Company, formed of hardened Almogavars—light infantry from Catalonia and Aragon—was one of the most formidable mercenary forces of the early 14th century. Their history includes:

• Initially hired by the Byzantine Empire to combat Turkish incursions
• Quickly became notorious for their ferocity and independence
• Turned on their Byzantine employers after political conflict and the murder of their commander Roger de Flor
• Launched the infamous “Catalan Vengeance”, ravaging Thrace and Greece
• Eventually carved out control over the Duchy of Athens

Far from exemplifying loyalty, the Catalan Company became famous for autonomy, brutality, and opportunism.

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4. Free Companies (Les Grandes Compagnies)

Rather than one unified group, the term “Free Companies” refers to a variety of semi-independent, often leaderless mercenary bands active mainly during the Hundred Years’ War. They:

• Operated without fixed allegiance, fighting for whoever paid
• Survived during peace by extortion, raiding, and pillage
• Included infamous organizations like the Tard-Venus and the Great Company
• Became so disruptive that rulers sometimes paid them simply to go elsewhere

These companies reflected the dangerous economic vacuum faced by unemployed soldiers in a continent torn by prolonged conflict.

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5. Swiss Mercenaries

By the late 15th century, Swiss pikemen were among the most sought-after troops in Europe. Their characteristics included:

• Exceptional discipline, cohesion, and shock infantry tactics
• Organized recruitment through the Swiss cantons
• Contracts with major powers such as France, the Holy Roman Empire, and several Italian states

Swiss mercenaries played major roles in:

• The Burgundian Wars
• The Italian Wars
• The shaping of early modern infantry tactics

Though highly effective, their reputation for loyalty is overstated; their primary constraint was a refusal to fight fellow Swiss.

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Impact of Mercenary Companies on Medieval Europe

Mercenary companies profoundly influenced the military and political environment of their time. Their impact can be summarized as follows:

Advantages

• Provided rulers with rapidly deployable professional armies
• Introduced or improved military innovations (e.g., pike squares, mobile infantry)
• Allowed smaller states to compete militarily with larger kingdoms
• Strengthened the emergence of state-controlled standing armies by setting professional standards

Disadvantages

• Could become uncontrollable during lapses in payment
• Engaged in widespread pillaging, especially Free Companies
• Often pursued self-interest, resulting in shifting alliances
• Contributed to political destabilization, especially in Italy during the Renaissance

Mercenaries were, in many ways, a double-edged sword. They offered expertise and flexibility but also undermined the ideals of knightly service, feudal loyalty, and territorial stability.

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Mercenary companies were essential components of late medieval warfare. Whether serving as disciplined professionals like the White Company, opportunistic ravagers like the Free Companies, or elite infantry such as the Swiss mercenaries, these groups reshaped military practice across Europe. Their existence highlights a period of transformation, marked by declining feudal structures and the rise of contract-based warfare, professional soldiers, and early state militaries.

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